Materials used in the manufacture of handles.
The history of materials used to make fountain pens dates back to ancient times, when the properties of natural substances, such as horn, waxes and bitumens, were used by people for practical purposes. These materials were polymers, in which molecules (monomers) bond together and form chains during the setting and curing process. They are, in fact, plastics and, like all plastics, their main component is carbon.
People gradually learned that the properties of such materials could be improved by methods such as purification and modification with other substances, but it was not until the 19th century that many new industries began to need materials with properties that could not be found in nature. This stimulated the creation of a number of new materials, including the first plastics.
The metal has been widely used for centuries for a variety of purposes, including the making of feathers. Bronze feathers were found in the ruins of Pompeii.
Craftsmen also made handmade feathers, including many from precious metals, in accordance with the special requests of wealthy customers.
As machine technology and metallurgy advanced, a wide variety of materials were used in production, including brass, silver and gold. Parts of fountain pens, especially caps and bodies, were made from these materials. In many cases, base metal such as brass was plated with a thin layer of noble metal such as gold and silver. Technological processes originally involved rolling a layer of noble metal onto the surface of a base metal, but the electroplating technique has now replaced this process as it provides a more durable coating. In many cases, stainless steel has been successfully used to make durable, low-cost cases and covers that are well-liked by customers. Metals such as palladium and tritium have sometimes been used successfully in the manufacture of fountain pens. Back in 1970, lightweight but extremely hard titanium was difficult to process into fountain pens, but modern technology has made it much easier to use, and manufacturers now offer several varieties of titanium fountain pens.
The first fountain pens (in the 19th century) were made from hard carbon black-filled rubber. Their appearance was improved by applying various patterns on engraving machines. The most attractive, however, was the appearance of fountain pens when the hard rubber body was coated with precious metals - gold and silver. The coating was made in the form of filigree or complex patterns.
These magnificent early examples of fountain pens, decorated with metal ornaments, are now sought after by collectors all over the world.
Wooden fountain pens were made by several manufacturers using turning or even inlay. This became feasible primarily due to the wide selection of wood, its beauty and ease of practical use, as a result of which it became possible to choose certain types of wood for a variety of purposes.
However, the wood used for the production of fountain pens, even after cutting, drying and turning on a lathe, swells, dries out, warps or cracks, depending on climatic conditions. It is also porous, and the outer surface must be sealed to protect it from external influences and reduce moisture absorption. Examples of tree species used are Erica arborescens, maple, olive and the very rare snakewood.
Varnish is a general name for all types of coatings that form a hard, smooth and shiny surface. In the fountain pen industry, the same term means two completely different types of varnish - synthetic and Chinese.
The most commonly used coating is varnish, made from inert chemicals that are usually sprayed in several layers onto rotating brass bodies or covers. This coating is beautiful and durable. In addition, it offers an almost unlimited variety of surface finishes, such as marble, and makes it possible to produce beautiful, durable, yet inexpensive writing utensils.
More expensive coatings are made from Chinese, or oriental, varnish - of vegetable origin. To make varnish, resinous sap is used, collected from small trees that belong to the sumac family and grow mainly in China and Japan. Although the art of making lacquer products dates back centuries, and methods have changed over time, today the manufacture of Chinese lacquer coated fountain pens requires that same focused, internal discipline, treating the lacquer as an animate being that is difficult to “tame” and with which it is not easy. work. It also requires a thorough knowledge of the traditions of craftsmanship that originated 1000 years BC.
Fountain pens coated with Chinese varnish inspire admiration for their perfect surface gloss, richness of shades, excellent tactile properties, as well as unsurpassed resistance to the destructive effects of time and fire. Excellent examples of products coated with Chinese varnish are produced by the prestigious company S.T. Dupont, which prides itself on the fact that “if you throw one of our pens into a fire, nothing will happen to it.”
PLASTIC MATERIALS
The term "plastic" comes from the ancient Greek word "plasticos" (malleable). Therefore, plastics are materials that can be softened by heat and can be molded into desired shapes. Some plastics, like horn, are of natural origin, others, like nitrocellulose, are semi-synthetic, and are obtained by exposing natural substances to chemicals. Synthetic plastics are made from components of petroleum or natural gas.
All plastics are carbon-based and contain a number of molecules in the form of chains. There are two main categories of plastics - thermoplastics, which retain the ability to transition to a viscous-flow state with a change in shape, and thermosets, which take a constant specific shape depending on temperature and pressure.
FIRST PLASTICS
There are many early plastics. It has already been said that Chinese varnish is one of the very first plastics in the world. It was especially widely used during the reign of the imperial Han dynasty (starting from the 2nd century BC). The resinous sap obtained from the wood of the "sumac" (Rhus verniciflua), which grows mainly in China and Japan, is collected from cuts in the bark and filtered. In this case, care must be taken, because the resinous juice is poisonous and can cause severe burns. When exposed to air, in the presence of laccase (an enzyme that acts as a hardener), polymerization occurs, and the varnish dries and hardens, forming a shiny, durable and water-resistant coating.
AMBER is a natural thermoplastic, fossilized resin of fossil coniferous trees from the genus Pinus succinifer, which grew 40 - 60 million years ago. Amber is hard, light and warm to the touch; it is brightly colored and shiny. If you rub it, it can attract other objects to it. Amber is also credited with certain magical properties. The main methods of processing amber boil down to processes that require heating, clarification and pressing into tiles. The main area of application of amber is the manufacture of beads of the same color and composition.
HORN can be heated and split, softened in boiling water, then leveled and given the desired shape using the hot pressing method. As a result, the horn behaves like a typical thermoplastic sheet material. By the early 19th century, the molded horn industry was thriving; Combs were mainly made from horn. Nowadays, several specialized companies produce fountain pens with bodies and caps made of horn. The most beautiful fountain pens made from horny substance are produced by the Japanese company Mannenhitsu Hakase; All handles are made by hand.
View TURTLE SHELL, commonly used in the production of fountain pens, are the horny large horny plates that cover the bony upper shield of the hawksbill turtle; they can be cut and pressed like horn, but always in such a way that the natural pattern is preserved. The beauty of tortoiseshell patterns encourages fountain pen makers to reproduce these colors and patterns on many lacquered writing utensils. Nowadays, synthetic varnish is mainly used for surface finishing.
SHELLAC is a natural resin of animal origin produced by tiny insects - lacquer bugs (Coccus lacca), which live on tropical and subtropical woody plants of certain species. Shellac is a thermoplastic, it was patented in the USA by Samuel Peck in the 50s. XIX century as a material for the manufacture of pressed products. Shellac can be mixed with fine wood chips and pressed into various shapes, such as photo frames. Compositions made from shellac were used until the 40s. for pressing gramophone records, and today shellac is used to make sealing wax. It is an important material used in the repair of fountain pens.
WOOD MASTIC. Sawdust mixed with albumin forms thermoset. The material was patented by Lepage in the 50s. XIX century. It is used mainly for making decorative plates, knife handles, dominoes, and jewelry.
GUTTA PERCHA- a plastic of natural origin, cut from the bark of a tree of the genus Palaquium, which grows in Malaya. Gutta-percha was used to make a wide variety of household and technical products, from jewelry and furniture to the insulation of undersea telegraph cables laid in 1850. Although the material is not very durable, it is still used today in the casings of footballs. golf.
SEMI-SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
In the 19th century, scientists discovered that natural substances reacted with various chemicals to form new semi-synthetic materials. The main ones used in the production of writing instruments are listed below.
RUBBER. Around 1838, Charles Goodyear, a failed American iron manufacturer, invented the process of vulcanizing rubber. At the same time as Goodyear, the Hancock brothers from England achieved the same success. Vulcanized rubber is called ebonite or vulcanizate. The process involves adding varying amounts of sulfur to natural rubber, which becomes harder and more elastic. Rubber is naturally dark in color, but if necessary, it can be colored with pigment to change the appearance.
By the end of the 19th century and until the beginning of the 20s. In the 20th century, most fountain pen manufacturers made them from vulcanized rubber. Two typical examples are the Jack-Knife fountain pens from Parker and the Ripple fountain pens from Waterman. The former were mostly black or black with a surface finish, the latter were made from stain-free vulcanized hard rubber and were two-tone, which looked very nice; the most popular of them were fountain pens with a variegated surface with red and white speckles.
CASEIN. The product was patented in Germany in 1899 under the name "galalite" (Greek for "milkstone"). The process of preparing casein involves adding rennet to separated, skimmed milk. The result is rennet casein. It is then dried, processed and dyed. Using extrusion technology, rods were made from the material and rolled into sheets. (Extrusion is a method in which a screw moves the raw material along a cylindrical body at high temperature and high pressure. The space in which the softened material can be moved by the screw is gradually reduced, and as a result the material becomes viscous. It is then forced through small holes in extrusion head at atmospheric pressure and ambient air temperature. As a result, the material expands and takes one or another shape depending on the configuration of the hole. It is cut into pieces of the required shape and size and, finally, dried).
After exiting the extruder, casein is cured by immersion in formaldehyde and then machined. Casein comes in a range of vibrant patterns and colors; it found use in a variety of industries, including button making. Parker used this material to make Ivorines fountain pens. But, unfortunately, casein is a porous substance, and over time it begins to shrink. This affected the appearance of Ivorines fountain pens: if, due to shrinkage of the barrel, the pipette was damaged and ink spilled, the casein became contaminated. In the 80s of the last century, Waterman used a similar material to make the Lady Elsa series fountain pens. These pens, which were refilled with replaceable ink cartridges, did not become dirty as easily, and in this sense they were better than the Ivorines pens.
PLASTICS BASED ON CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES. They are made by chemically modifying cellulose, a naturally occurring polymer that makes up approximately 1/3 of the entire phytomass of our planet. Cellulose can be made into thin film (cellophane), man-made fiber, or thermoplastic. There are many cellulose derivatives that play the most important role in the manufacture of fountain pens; among them are nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate and cellulose acetobutyrate. Their general physical properties include high abrasion resistance, high gas permeability, good electrical insulation properties, average water vapor permeability and good transparency.
NITROCELLULOSE. This substance is obtained by direct nitration of cellulose with nitric acid using various methods. Nitrocellulose can be transparent, opaque or colored. The product has quite satisfactory non-shrinkability, low water absorption and fairly high impact strength. It is, however, quite unstable to heat and direct sunlight. It can only be molded using a limited number of methods. It is also highly flammable.
Nitrocellulose is processed by mixing with a plasticizer, ethyl alcohol and other solvents to obtain a viscous plastic mass. This product is then compressed or extruded and aged to remove residual solvent. Typically the plasticizer is camphor, which is used in the production of celluloid. Celluloid is used to make many personal items, including combs and children's toys. Other brand names for celluloid are xylonite, parkesite, codalotide and pyramine (Du Pont).
British chemist Alexander Parker of Birmingham invented xylonite in 1855. By adding various oils to nitrocellulose, he created a paste that, when dried, looked like ivory or horn. The inventor called this substance “Parkesine” and made several products from it that were exhibited at the 1962 World Exhibition in London. Parker was awarded an honorary award for excellence in production.
In 1870, the Hiatt brothers patented their celluloid product, in which they used camphor rather than olive oil, as in parkin. In 1924, the Sheaffer company produced plastic fountain pens using a similar material, pyroxylin, giving it the trade name "radite." Two years later, Parker used this material to make Duofold fountain pens, giving it the brand name "permanite".
Raw pyroxylin takes a very long time to dry, from six months to several years. If the pyroxylin is not completely dry, the material may become deformed or even melt when machined as a result of the heat generated. Special devices for supplying cutting fluid during drilling and hot air drying help solve these problems. However, the plastic components of fountain pens sometimes shrink after production.
Nitrocellulose is extremely explosive and flammable. In the mid-20s. Several explosions occurred at the Wahl Eversharp factory in Chicago. The problems, however, were soon resolved, and by 1928 complex patterns were created, for example, a combination of mother-of-pearl and black. The pearlescent color was created by adding "pearl essence" to nitrocellulose. The essence was prepared from the chemical compound "guanine", which forms small, flat, shiny crystals on the scales of some types of fish. Later, lead phosphate(2) was used to finish the surface to resemble mother-of-pearl. For this purpose, two bars of two colors were crushed into particles of the required size, and these particles were melted by mixing them with a solvent and subjecting them to high pressure. The resulting black-pearl block could be heat-treated and dried before being made into caps and bodies for fountain pens.
The new plastics were not only attractive to look at, but also unbreakable, so the appeal of plastic fountain pens to the general public increased significantly, thereby stimulating sales. In the 30s Many fountain pen manufacturers, including Parker with its Vacumetric models, made plastic fountain pens with a transparent reservoir or with an annular transparent window, which made it possible to monitor the process of filling the pen with ink and its consumption. Vacumetric handle materials were made by compressing layers of clear and opaque nitrocellulose and cellulose esters into bars. Then the bars were painted and filled with filler. The end bars could be cut into thin layers to make parts for a fountain pen. The result was a pattern in the form of either a mosaic or a grid.
The striped material for the Vacumatic series fountain pens was made in exactly the same way, using translucent and opaque nitrocellulose, which was dyed and given pearl colors if desired. The material was cut into thin layers and pressed into bars, from which parts of fountain pens could then be made.
ACETYL CELLULOSE. As a result of the reaction of acetic acid and acetic anhydride with industrial cellulose, cellulose triacetate is formed. When this substance is hydrolyzed, cellulose acetate is formed. The use of a plasticizer reduces the softening temperature of cellulose, which makes it possible to process it without deteriorating its properties. By changing the dosage of plasticizer, the level of esterification and the length of the molecular chain of the original cellulose, a family of plastics can be obtained. They differ in softening temperature, hardness, strength and toughness.
CELLULOSE PROPIONATE AND CELLULOSE ACETOBUTYRATE. Both of these substances are formed by replacing acetic acid and acetic anhydride with corresponding acids and anhydrides. The esters are fused with a plasticizer under high temperature and high pressure conditions to produce homogeneous melts that are formed into rods and pellets. Cellulose propionate and cellulose acetobutyrate are also available in powder form. They are more expensive than cellulose acetate, but they have increased strength and are more stable, since they are characterized by lower water absorption. In addition to making writing utensils, cellulose propionate is often used to make blister packs (polymer thermoformed rigid film) and molded containers, car parts such as steering wheels, lighting fixtures and toys.
Firms now produce a wide range of colored plastics using nitrocellulose and cellulose acetate; These materials are usually used to make eyeglass frames, fashion accessories, etc. New technology makes it possible to produce these materials in thicker sheets, allowing fountain pen manufacturers to use them in the manufacture of writing utensils.
METALS
Pure metals are generally unsuitable for use in manufacturing processes due to their mechanical properties. On the other hand, metal alloys can be made to have properties that make them suitable. An alloy is a material with metallic properties that contains more than one component. Alloys can have complex compositions, and two alloys with the same chemical composition can have completely different properties if subjected to different types of heat treatments.
The alloys most often used in the production of fountain pens are based on brass, steel, nickel, silver and gold. Metals have a significant advantage over other materials used in fountain pens because the crystallographic structure of most commonly used alloys provides much-needed mechanical properties such as hardness, elasticity and ductility. This allows a wide variety of hot and cold working methods to be used to produce pen components that are easy to shape. In addition to versatility in use, metal alloys have a pleasant appearance. In addition, the use of coatings allows pen manufacturers to produce a wide range of durable and beautiful writing instruments to suit individual requirements.
Metal parts can be produced using a number of technological processes - rolling, forging, extrusion; relatively easy deformability makes metals particularly suitable for high-throughput, mass and high-precision processing. Special technological processes make it possible to obtain parts of a shape that is close to the specified one. Machining is typically used to make precious metal components, while injection molding is used primarily to make base metal parts. In addition, parts can be made from either the material alone or from the material with additional coatings, such as gold and silver plating, which improves corrosion resistance and improves appearance.
Metals have a wider range of properties than any other class of structural materials, such as polymers and wood. For example, hard steels have a tensile strength of over 250 t/sq.m. inch at room temperature. Melting temperatures can range from -39 degrees centigrade. for mercury up to 3410 gr.c for tungsten. Stainless alloys are resistant to most chemicals except the strongest acids, and gold, platinum and related metals will only be corroded by chemicals in exceptional circumstances. The ability of metal nibs to resist atmospheric corrosion, as well as a wide variety of inks, is extremely important to fountain pen manufacturers.
Below is a brief list of the metals that are commonly used to make fountain pens. In the most general form, they are divided into two categories: base and noble metals. Parts made from noble metals are corrosion resistant under normal operating conditions, but are particularly expensive.
BASE METALS
STAINLESS STEEL. The most common composition is 74% iron, 18% nickel and 8% chromium. It is used for the manufacture of most structural elements. This material is hard, quite plastic, and lends itself well to such types of processing as cold rolling, drawing, stamping and crimping. Stainless steel is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion; you can process it to obtain an attractive-looking surface - matte, rough or polished to a mirror shine. You can also apply a thin electroplated nickel coating and top it with a bright chrome finish. Because of its rigidity and corrosion resistance, stainless steel is used to make barrels, caps, and nibs of fountain pens.
BRASS. The term "brass" refers to a broad family of alloys based on various variations of the copper-zinc system and often containing other metallic additives that give the alloys specific properties. The most common compositions are: 60% copper and 40% zinc; 63% copper and 37% zinc; 709% copper and 30% zinc. These compositions combine adequate mechanical properties, ease of manufacture and corrosion resistance.
Coating the surface of the above alloys with noble metals can be carried out using a rolling process. For example, if gold is used, karat gold sheets can be attached to a block of backing material (of the above composition) using a roller press under high temperature and high pressure conditions. The thickness and karat weight of the gold layer are adjusted depending on the technical requirements. For example, if the weight is required to be 1/10 of 12 karat, 12K gold is used and the plating thickness is adjusted so that the weight of the gold layer is 1/9 of the weight of the backing material.
The finished bar is rolled on a rolling mill to reduce its thickness. Intermediate annealing operations are performed at this stage to facilitate the coating hardening process. Finish rolling is performed on mirror-polished rollers. The thickness ratio of the gold coating and the substrate material remains unchanged during rolling operations.
TITANIUM. This metal is relatively light, with a specific weight of only 50% of that of brass or stainless steel, but it is extremely resistant to corrosion. The use of titanium was considered by several pen manufacturers, but they encountered production problems, mainly due to the hardness of titanium. It is believed that titanium pen parts can be made from extruded tubular blanks, and titanium alloys of varying composition have been tested. Parker's Titanium TI fountain pen was produced for only one year (1970) due to the difficulties associated with machining titanium. Nowadays, using more advanced technology, some manufacturers, including Aurora, Faber-Castell, Lamy, Montblanc and Omas, are producing fountain pens made entirely of titanium.
ALUMINUM. Pure aluminum is a soft metal that cannot withstand pressure and therefore easily deforms. Additionally, aluminum is not hard enough to withstand the rough handling that most writing utensils endure. However, it is used to make parts that are not subject to regular wear and tear. By alloying aluminum with other metals, a number of materials can be obtained that retain their common characteristics of lightness and durability, but also have other higher properties: increased tensile strength and hardness, as well as improved machinability.
NOBLE METALS
SILVER. Typically, silver alloys use 925 sterling silver, the rest are alloying elements: copper, nickel or zinc, which serve as strengthening elements. In the past, low sterling silver (800) was used, but this practice has been discontinued. In its pure form, silver is used only in cases where it is electroplated onto a metal substrate. Pure silver is widely used for plating metal substrates due to its excellent optical reflectivity, which gives the product an attractive appearance. Alloys of silver and palladium have been used to make feathers, but they are not complete substitutes for gold. Silver polishes very well, but may tarnish in atmospheres containing sulfur compounds.
Sterling silver is used to make solid silver parts, including cases and caps. An important characteristic feature of silver is that its surface can be engraved using the guilloche technique. Many manufacturers produce fountain pens made entirely of sterling silver. Such pens are not only more beautiful than silver-plated ones, but they will also increase in value over time.
GOLD. This oldest precious metal known to man is easily recognized by its characteristic yellow color and extremely high density. The softness of pure gold makes it unsuitable as a material for making jewelry. Gold can be made harder by adding alloying elements such as copper, nickel, silver or zinc. Changes in the concentration of individual metals in the master alloy affect the appearance and characteristics of gold. For example, the color of 18 karat gold ranges from light yellow to pink and red, depending on the alloying additives. All gold alloys are extremely resistant to water and atmospheric corrosion; That's why they hardly fade.
There are three main types of industrial alloys used in the manufacture of fountain pens:
9K gold (375 parts pure gold per 1000 parts alloy). This is the hardest gold alloy, and it is also the cheapest.
14K gold (585 parts pure gold per 1000). It is a medium-cost alloy that is used to a limited extent in most continental European countries, but is widely used in the UK and North America. Most gold nibs are made from 14K gold.
18K gold (750 parts per 1000). Although it is softer than both of the above alloys, it is still hard enough to be used in the manufacture of solid gold pens and nibs. European manufacturers make fountain pens and nibs from 14K gold for export, but in member countries of the European Union the predominant alloy is 18K gold.
White gold is an alloy in which the alloys are primarily silver and palladium, along with a few other minor additives. White gold is usually produced in the 18K variety, but is used very sparingly in industry.
GOLD COATINGS. Most manufacturers use the unique properties of gold, even if this noble metal is present only as a coating applied to the substrate metal. This coating can be applied using two different processes: first, using the rolling process described above, and second, using electroplating: the part is immersed in a special gold-containing solution through which an electric current is passed. Gold or a pre-prepared alloy with a high gold content is deposited on the surface of the part, which serves as an electrode. Gold alloys typically used for electroplating are 18K or 23.5K gold. Pen body parts can be plated using both methods, but holders are usually plated using electroplating.
OTHER NOBLE METALS. Of the noble metals used to make fountain pens, the group that includes platinum, rhodium, iridium, osmium and palladium share the same physical, mechanical and chemical properties. All of these metals are white in color, have a high melting point and are extremely resistant to corrosion.
In its pure form, platinum is soft, but hardens quickly with the addition of a small amount of alloying additives, and for the production of products it is used in the form of an alloy containing 950 parts per 1000. Since platinum is the most expensive of all noble metals used for making jewelry, in including feathers, it is used very sparingly. The metal is used to make the most prestigious feathers; in this case the pen becomes two-color. One of the best examples is the famous Montblanc Masterpiece 149 fountain pen nib. Several manufacturers, including Montblanc, make nibs from pure platinum, but these nibs are especially expensive.
Rhodium and palladium are used as electrolytic coatings. They are stronger than silver plating.
Of all the metals known today that have the highest density and hardness, osmium and palladium are mainly used to make balls, which are then welded onto the tip of a precious metal quill, cut along the cleavage line and ground. The strength of these metals makes the feathers extremely durable.
WOOD
There are about 70,000 different tree species known, of which about 400 are commercially available. These breeds are generally used in their country of origin, although some are exported to industrialized countries around the world.
The degree of hardness varies between tree species, and it is generally accepted that hardwoods produce harder wood than, for example, conifers. The color of wood mainly depends on the content of extractive substances, and the wood of some species turns pale in the light; while the wood of others, on the contrary, darkens, but most types of wood acquire richer colors when polished.
The natural pattern in cuts of wood is called grain; it is caused by the interaction of such natural factors as the presence of pigments, stripes and specks, the difference in density between the cells of early and late wood, the direction of wood fibers, and the pattern of arrangement of growth rings. There are eight main types of fiber direction in relation to the trunk axis, of which the most common are straight grain, in which the fibers are directed parallel to the trunk axis (maple, ebony) and confused curling, in which the fibers are randomly arranged (Erica arborescens).
The ability of wood cells to reflect light gives the polished surface shine, and dense wood with a fine structure shines brighter than wood with a coarse structure.
In order to determine the strength and durability of a wood species for a specific purpose, it is necessary to know what its mechanical properties are, including flexural strength, stiffness or modulus of elasticity, and impact strength (the ability to absorb energy when subjected to impact). Drying wood plays an extremely important role, because it determines the behavior of wood during use, and most types of wood are dried until the moisture content is reduced to 12% by weight. The specific gravity of wood is defined as the ratio of mass to volume; It is customary to compare the specific gravity of a substance with the specific gravity of water, which is 1.0. Thus, the specific gravity of any wood gives a clear idea of its mass if the volume is known.
When choosing wood for making fountain pens, you should take into account not only the color and surface pattern, but also the deformability of the wood when using a fountain pen under different conditions of temperature and humidity. The surface should not crack. After seasoning, the wood is sawn into small pieces, which usually have a square cross-section. These bars are then processed on a lathe to give them the required shape and size. In many cases, metal or other inserts are placed in the body and cap of the pen. Because wood is porous, coating the surface is necessary not only to reduce the absorption of moisture (especially ink), but also to preserve the natural beauty of the wood.
Below is a short list of wood species most commonly used by leading fountain pen manufacturers.
Ebony (ebony). The wood is hard, the color is from dark brown to black, the grain arrangement is mostly straight-grained, the texture is fine, uniform in color and pattern. The wood is extremely heavy and dense (specific gravity 1.09). It is difficult to dry and difficult to process, but it polishes well. An excellent example of a fountain pen made from ebony is the OMAS 360 Wood.
Maple. The color of the wood ranges from cream to pinkish brown. The wood is usually straight-grained, the texture is fine, uniform in color and pattern. The specific gravity is 0.69. Maple wood dries slowly and has an average degree of deformability. A typical example of a fountain pen made from Japanese maple is the Pilot FK Balanced.
Olive. The color of this wood is from pale brown to brown, the grain arrangement is spiral. The wood has a fine texture, uniform in color and pattern. It is quite heavy (specific gravity 0.89), dries slowly, with a tendency to crack from shrinkage and split. Wood can be painted and polished, but deformation may occur when using a fountain pen. An excellent example of a fountain pen made from olive is the Waterman Man 100.
Snake tree. This is a South American tree from the genus Brosimum alicestrum; in the UK it is called letterwood, and in the US it is called leopard or pied. The color of the wood is red-brown with black patches or vertical stripes. The wood is very hard, durable and heavy (specific gravity 1.30). It is difficult to dry in air and has a tendency to warp. Although wood is difficult to work, it can be polished to a high shine to produce a very beautiful surface. The degree of deformability is average. A great example of a fountain pen made from snakewood is the OMAS 360 Wood.
Rosewood. The color of the core of the trunk ranges from solid bright red to a pattern of yellow, orange and red veins. The wood is hard and heavy (specific gravity 1.10). Dries very slowly, deformation is negligible. The wood is easy to paint and can be polished to produce a very beautiful surface. The Omas company produces round and faceted fountain pens from this wood.
Guaiacum. Guaiacum wood is one of the hardest and heaviest, with a specific gravity of 1.23. Color - from brownish-greenish to almost black. The wood is oily; degree of deformability - average. Wood can be polished to produce a very beautiful surface. The Omas fountain pen collection, made from exotic woods in 1995, contains a fountain pen made from this beautiful material.
Indian sandalwood. The color of the wood ranges from light yellow to golden brown and brick red. The wood has a characteristic odor. Its specific gravity is on average 0.66, depending on the country of origin. Wood dries rather slowly, but deforms very little. It can be painted and polishes beautifully. In the Omas collection of fountain pens, which began production in 1995, there is a copy made of sandalwood.
Erica tree-like. This wood is most often used to make fountain pens. It is extremely hard, heat and scratch resistant. Unlike the above-mentioned types of wood, which are found in the above-ground parts of trees, Erica tree wood, used to make fountain pens (and many other products), is found underground. Color ranges from white with a yellowish or grayish tint to shades of brown and purple. The wood dries very slowly, but stains well and polishes well. Waterman, Sailor, Platinum and Omas are among the manufacturers that make fountain pens from Erica arborescens.
Although most lacquered writing instruments are made using so-called synthetic varnish, there is a much more valuable perfect and even finish obtained from Chinese varnish. This varnish is a tree sap that has one feature: it hardens when it comes into contact with air and forms a perfectly smooth surface. The raw material is obtained from the sap of three species of trees growing in East Asia: the lacquer tree Rhus verniciflua (Japan), the successive sumac Rhus succedanea (China) and the lacquer tree Melossorreha lappifera (Kampuchea). When the lacquer tree reaches the age of 8 - 12 years, its sap is collected in jugs suspended under thin cuts in the bark. The properties of the varnish depend on climatic conditions and in particular on the monsoon period. If the sap is collected in years with heavy rainfall, the varnish will be elastic, but if the sap is collected during relatively dry periods, the varnish will be hard, even brittle. A soft varnish will not be strong enough for use in fountain pens, and the brittle material is not easy to polish, and any impact will leave noticeable marks on its surface.
This is why it is very important to use methods that allow different varnishes to be mixed and ensure optimal viscosity. The two main components of varnish are resin, which gives elasticity, and urushiol, an active component that gives hardness to the varnish. Urushiol is a common generic name that also applies to cyciol and lakkol, depending on the type of tree from which the sap is obtained.
In order to create the best quality surface when making fountain pens, the varnish should be applied in several layers, under strictly controlled ambient air parameters - temperature and humidity, while each layer hardens. (Like wine, varnish is a living and unpredictable thing, and sometimes the mixture turns out wrong)
To overcome these difficulties, it is very important to know exactly the optimal conditions for each type of varnish. For example, varnish from East Asia dries only at relatively high air humidity (75 - 80%) and at a temperature of 25 - 30 degrees Celsius. Nowadays, firms such as S.T. Dupont have developed techniques for regulating temperature and humidity. (Not so long ago, working with varnish could cause an allergic reaction, but this problem was solved).
Asian varnish artists usually work with wood. There is a natural affinity between varnish and wood since they both belong to the same family of organic substances, but it is much more difficult to get varnish to bond to metal. The details of the process of preparing raw materials, as well as applying varnish, are usually shrouded in something of a mystery, because this process involves not only a deep knowledge of the ancient secrets of the craft, but also the constant search by the master varnisher for new varnish recipes and original finishing options.
SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS AND PREPARATION OF VARNISH
The varnish used by S.T. Dupont is assembled in China, then, after primary processing in Japan, the varnish is sent in wooden barrels to France, where it is subject to quality control upon arrival. Using a brush made of the finest hair and attached to a strip of bamboo, the artist applies a little varnish to the glass plate. After two hours, he already knows exactly what the quality of the delivered varnish is.
The successive stages of varnish preparation have magical names: the “nayashi” process - the evaporation of moisture to obtain raw varnish, which is used in primers; the kurume process is the production of pure varnish used to fill pores and finish the surface.
The first mixture is prepared by hand using a spatula in a clay vessel, much in the same way as the most famous perfumes are made: the master does not know exactly the general formula, he just knows the exact quantities of several coating components that he must mix. These are the pigments that give the varnish its unique colors: “midnight sky blue”, “light tortoiseshell”, “Coromandel red”, etc.
The varnish is then filtered through a piece of gauze suspended on a wooden frame and two strings. Filtration is carried out by alternately twisting and unwinding the laces, so that the gauze is compressed. The filtered varnish flows very slowly, drop by drop, into a clay vessel, which is immediately sealed with greased wet paper. Every day, the varnish prepared the day before is filtered, and each vessel acquires its own pedigree in the form of a label, which indicates the mixing sequence number, weight and date. After this, the varnishes are ready to be sent to the workshop, where the air is conditioned and dust-free.
APPLYING VARNISH
Traditionally, varnish was applied exclusively with a brush. After hardening, each layer was polished by hand for a long time using various fine abrasives, such as charcoal. Some decorations, such as gold dust, should be applied with a spatula or brush, following the aventurine powder technique used in Japan in the late 19th century.
Although techniques have improved greatly since then, applying varnish to a fountain pen still requires a great deal of skill. The lid or body, made of brass, is placed on a rod that rotates over a metal plate. The craftsman must have great experience in adding the required amount of varnish, which he then distributes evenly over the entire surface of the fountain pen when the brass comes into contact with the plate. The layer thickness is about 70 microns (0.07 mm). The process is repeated several times and, depending on the desired pattern, up to six layers of varnish are applied.
As each layer of coating is applied, the varnish hardens as a result of natural polymerization (that is, a change in the chemical composition of the varnish: the molecules close together and form a strong three-dimensional structure). In order for the process to proceed normally, such parameters of the room microclimate as oxygen content in the air, temperature and humidity are regulated. Once the varnish layer has hardened, the finished product is polished extremely carefully.
There is a wide variety of finishes available, including solid colors, patterns using different colors and even exquisite designs with the addition of gold dust. Perhaps one of the most attractive patterns is the so-called “eggshell”. Company S.T. Dupont is probably the only fountain pen manufacturer in the West that has mastered this technique.
The varnish has a natural amber color and usually does not require the addition of white pigments. Tiny eggshell particles are placed by hand onto the first coat of varnish, then coated for the final finish. With subsequent polishing, the eggshell becomes visible again. This special method was invented in France in the 20s. Jean Dunand, the first famous French varnish master. His student George Novosilleff became the first varnish master to work at S.T. Dupont.
(The article uses materials from the book “Fountain Pens of the World” by Andreas Lambrou)
It’s been a long time since I did a review of how Skrepka. Then there was a small note about how it is possible. This time I want to tell you how the ballpoint works.
Ballpoint pen device
Ballpoint pens are a military invention, originally used by pilots instead of pencils. As a rule, the writing unit and the ink container are one piece (and in cheap disposable pens, the container is one whole) and are thrown away after use. We'll talk about exceptions later. A ballpoint pen is a fairly simple object from a mechanical point of view, using complex physical laws. Capillary effect is used to feed the writing unit. The writing unit itself is a combination of a tube and a rolling bearing. Ink is supplied into a thin tube with an internal diameter of about 0.5 mm on one side, and on the other side a small hard ball is rolled in, which scrolls quite freely in its socket.
Ballpoint pen writing unit
Ink gets onto the ball, and when we pass the ball over the paper, it rotates and transfers ink from the tube to the paper. Thanks to special ink and a very small gap between the ball and the walls of the tube, the ink flows in doses and evenly. Now ballpoint pens are divided into 3 classes based on the type of writing unit/ink:
- Ballpoint - classic ballpoint pen
- Gel (Gel rollerball) – gel
- Rollerball - roller
Regular ballpoint pen but uses thickened ink, sometimes oil-based. This type of ink and the simplest writing unit are used in cheap disposable and reusable pens. The disadvantage is that the writing is rather “tight,” which ultimately spoils the handwriting and strains the writer.
Gel- use ink with a gel consistency. Thanks to the new ink, it was possible to reduce the size of the ball, and the pen began to write softer. Sometimes gel ink is combined with a rollerball ink.
Roller- the most advanced model of ballpoint pens. The writing unit is spring-loaded; a ceramic ball is usually used (more wear-resistant). The ink used is regular liquid ink. In terms of cost, the pen is comparable to a regular fountain pen, and in terms of writing quality, it is close to it. No wonder even V.V. Putin signs documents precisely.
All modern pens can be divided into two large classes:fountain pens and traditional pens.
According to the design of the writing unit handles are divided into:
- ball (includes a ball made of metal);
- capillary (work on the principle of a felt-tip pen, supplying ink through the fibers);
- feather
“Liners” are usually called pens in which the writing unit is represented by a needle. “Liners” are similar to a rapidograph.
It is not so easy to say exactly which pens are called “rollerballs”. Often the concept of “rollerball” refers to any ballpoint pens from European manufacturers. Essentially, a “rollerball” is a regular ballpoint pen with different types of ink supply.
Another division of pens is based on the type of ink composition and the method of ink delivery. Absolutely all pens, except capillary ones, have a writing element made of hard and compact material. The ink of such pens also has an impenetrable composition. The ink of most pens cannot pass directly through the nib, but is forced to slowly flow down the surface of the writing element.
If you choose from all modern pens the one that is closest to traditional pens, then your choice should be a fountain pen. The main innovation of the fountain pen compared to its predecessors is the absence of the need for constant use of an inkwell. The ink in fountain pens is located inside a special reservoir or inside a cartridge. Fountain pens require the simplest ink to function.
Ballpoint pens, the writing element of which is a metal ball, differ from fountain pens in that they are not capable of scratching paper. As the ball rotates, it takes on the ink contained in the pen body and gently releases it to the paper. The ink is either placed in a tube that ends with a ball-shaped tip, this design is called a “rod,” or in a special cartridge. The presence of a cartridge is typical for modern roller skates.
Ink for ballpoint pens differs significantly in its composition from “feather” ink. Such inks necessarily include various resins that give the ink properties of durability and low fluidity.
In recent years, inks called “oil-based” have become very popular. These inks are used for ballpoint pens, and they are distinguished from traditional “ballpoint” inks by the need to use a writing element of a very small diameter. Reputable manufacturers of writing instruments produce special “oil” pens for their oil inks.
Rollerballs have absorbed all the advantages of both fountain pens and ballpoint pens. Rollerballs have a ball that ensures smooth writing. But rollerball ink is water-based, which makes it similar to fountain pen ink. However, despite being water-based, rollerball ink does not dry out as quickly as fountain pen ink does.
Thanks to the special design of the ink accumulator, which is in contact with the ball, the rollers can write in almost any position. Some models work effectively not only on vertical surfaces, but also in the “end up” position.
Most experts associate the future of writing accessories with gel pens. Gel ink has the consistency of a real gel, which can significantly reduce the amount of friction between the ball and the tip and make writing extra light. Gel ink is in no way inferior to ballpoint ink in terms of characteristics such as gloss and color depth. At the same time, they are significantly more water- and light-resistant than rollerball inks. Currently, the production of gel pens and inks for them is rapidly gaining momentum.
There are also pens on the writing instruments market equipped with ink supply systems called “ink-reservoir” and “free-ink”. At their core, these are roller skates. The ink-reservoir system is characterized by the presence of an ink reservoir that has a fibrous structure. This structure is used in felt-tip pens. The ink-tank system allows you to use ink very economically, but at the same time, the slow flow of ink makes writing much more difficult.
The free-ink system is a direct ink supply system that guarantees smooth and easy writing. The negative side of “free ink” is the high consumption of ink.
What kind of pens do you use?
Ball pen
Ballpoint pen tip: magnification
Ball pen- a pen that uses a so-called core (a tube filled with paste ink) with a ballpoint writing unit at the end for writing. The channel through which the ink passes is blocked at the end by a small metal ball, which, when writing, rolls along the surface of the paper, wetted with ink on the back side. A small gap between the ball and the walls allows it to rotate and leave a mark on the paper when rolling. These are the cheapest, simplest and therefore the most common pens. The ink used in ballpoint pens is different from the ink used for writing with fountain pens. It is oil-based and thicker, which prevents it from flowing out of the rod.
The principle of operation of the pen was patented on October 30, 1888 in the USA by John Loud. In subsequent years, various designs of ballpoint pens were invented and patented: on May 3, 1904 - by George Parker, in 1916 - by Van Vechten Reisberg.
The modern ballpoint pen was invented by the Hungarian journalist László József Bíró in 1938. In Argentina, where the journalist lived for many years, such pens are called “biromes” after him.
They were originally ordered by the British Royal Air Force because regular fountain pens leaked in airplanes due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure during climb.
In 1953, the Frenchman Marcel Bich improved and simplified the design, producing the cheapest (disposable) ballpoint pen model called BIC (Bic Cristal).
In the USSR, ballpoint pens became widespread in the late 1960s, after their mass production began in the fall of 1965 using Swiss equipment. For quite a long time, in Soviet schools, elementary school students were not allowed to use ballpoint pens, believing that with them it was impossible to develop correct and beautiful handwriting. This ban gradually faded in the 1980s.
There are two main types of ballpoint pens - disposable and refillable.
see also
- Space Pen - Fisher's space pen
Notes
Links
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
Synonyms:See what a “Ballpoint pen” is in other dictionaries:
BALLPOINT PEN, a writing device consisting of a reservoir (refill) filled with thick ink (paste), which is closed at one end by a small ball; When pressed on the rod, the ball rotates and transfers the paste onto the paper.… … Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary
See handle... approach the handle.. Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. pen, pen, pen; lever; shaft; chapyga, whip, ballpoint pen, handle, handle, paw... Synonym dictionary
The style of this article is non-encyclopedic or violates the norms of the Russian language. The article should be corrected according to Wikipedia's stylistic rules. This term has other meanings, see Pen... Wikipedia
Wiktionary has an entry for "pen" Pen: A pen is a writing instrument that can be used to leave an ink mark on a surface. A fountain pen is a writing accessory for writing on paper with liquid ink. Ballpoint pen,... ... Wikipedia
Space Pen Space Pen (Russian: Space Pen Space Pen) is also known as the Zero Gravity Pen, a ballpoint pen created and sold by Fisher Spacepen Co., in which the ink is in a special ... ... Wikipedia
HANDLE, and, female 1. Part of an object that is held or grasped by hand. Door r. R. teapot, suitcase, saw. 2. Part of the furniture that serves as a support for the arms, an armrest. R. chairs. Sofa arms. 3. Writing implement extended holder for... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
Noun, g., used. often Morphology: (no) what? pens, what? pen, (see) what? pen, what? with a pen, about what? about the pen; pl. What? pens, (no) what? pens, what? hands, (I see) what? pens, what? hands, about what? about handles a person's hand 1. With a handle... ... Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary
AND; pl. genus. check, date chkam; and. 1. Decrease caress. to Hand (1 digit). Little R. child. Make someone l. with a pen (colloquial; about a hand gesture as a sign of farewell). Walk arm in arm (=arm in arm). To kiss a hand (ironically; to kiss someone’s hand; usually... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
pen- And; pl. genus. check, date chkam; and. see also to handle 1) decrease caress. to hand 1) The small hand of a child. Make someone l. with a hand (colloquial; about a hand gesture as a sign of farewell) Walk by the hand (= along the hand) ... Dictionary of many expressions
A pen is considered a necessary writing utensil. Such devices are needed everywhere - for work, study and leisure. At the same time, there are different types of pens that differ in design, structure and cost. More details about popular varieties are described in the article.
Classes
All modern types of pens are divided into two large classes: fountain pens and traditional ones. Each of them has its own characteristics. Fountain pens are designs that automatically supply ink to the writing unit. The writing unit can be feathers, balls and fibers. The opposite option is the traditional pen, which comes in the form of a simple holder for a rod or nib.
By design, the types of handles are:
Among school supplies, pens are one of the most popular products. Typically, ball devices are used, which are convenient. There are many brands of similar products. Moreover, the cost of production is also different. The assortment includes products for every taste.
Liner
This is a type of pen in which the writing unit is presented in the form of a needle. Liners are similar to a rapidograph. These are convenient and functional.
Roller
There is no exact definition of what is considered a rollerblade. It is often classified as a ballpoint pen from European manufacturers. In fact, this is a standard device with different types of ink supply.
Such products are also classified according to the type of coloring composition and the method of ink supply. All devices, excluding capillary ones, have a writing element made of hard and practical material. Their ink has an impenetrable composition. They slowly pass over the surface of the writing element.
Feather version
A pen in the form of a feather is often classified as a traditional writing instrument. A special feature, in comparison with previous options, is that there is no need to constantly use an inkwell. The ink is located inside a special reservoir or inside a cartridge. Fountain pens are refilled with the simplest ink.
Ball
Such accessories are equipped with a writing element in the form of a metal ball. Ballpoint pens do not scratch paper. As the ball rotates, it receives the ink present in the body and then transfers it to the paper. The ink can be placed in a tube ending in a ball-shaped tip (called a refill), or in a special cartridge. The cartridges are usually installed in modern rollerballs.
The ink composition of these products differs markedly from that of feather inks. They are made up of different resins that make them durable and have low fluidity. Recently, ink called oil ink has been in demand. They are used in ballpoint pens, and compared to classic ink, the writing element in them has a small diameter. In-demand writing instrument manufacturers create oil pens for their original inks.
Rollerballs have the advantages of feather and ball options. Rollerballs have a ball that ensures smooth writing. And the ink is water-based, making it similar to fountain pens. But even though they are water-based, rollerball ink cannot dry quickly. Rollerballs write in almost any position. Some species are able to function when writing on a vertical surface or in the “end up” position.
Gel
Their ink has a gel-like consistency, which reduces the amount of friction between the ball and the tip and makes writing easier. There are different types of gel pens, differing in colors, designs, and saturation. Such devices are no worse than ball devices in terms of brilliance and depth of color. Ballpoint pen ink is water- and light-resistant compared to rollerball ink. Today, the production of gel devices and inks for them is carried out at an accelerated pace.
Among the writing instruments there are pens with ink supply systems such as ink-reservoir and free-ink. Essentially, they are roller skates. The first type involves the presence of an ink reservoir, which has a fibrous structure used in felt-tip pens. With the ink-reservoir system, ink is used sparingly, but its slow flow makes writing more difficult. And with free-ink, the pen writes easily and smoothly.
Cost and brands
Pen prices depend on many indicators. The cheapest ones cost up to 10 rubles. They can be purchased at every stationery store, kiosk, and supermarket. These are ballpoint pens without a spring with paste as ink. If you need to write a lot, then this is a great option. The most popular types are “927” and Corvina. Such devices are convenient and practical.
The middle price segment includes pens costing from 10 to 30 rubles. There are gel devices from popular manufacturers and products with springs. Well-known manufacturers include Schneider, Pentel, Staedtler.
Expensive pens cost from 30 rubles. They are appreciated by lovers of high quality writing objects. These can be ball-on, gel and ink. Parker products are in demand. Their cost starts from 1000 rubles. These are collectible and designer items. They are used only in rare cases.
So there are a variety of handles. Ball ones remain the most popular, as they are usually used by schoolchildren and students. Many are intended for daily use, while others may only be used on rare occasions, such as designer items.
