Have you ever wondered why many species of animals that lived in distant centuries no longer exist on the planet today, and some bacteria that were previously easily killed by the action of penicillin today do not even react to this antibiotic? It turns out that all life on earth is influenced by evolution - a process in which the non-stop development of living nature occurs, with constant changes in the genetic composition of living beings and the formation of special adaptations for the survival of a particular species in given conditions. Such adaptations are called adaptations.
Adaptations arise due to mutations that periodically occur in nature. One or more genes may undergo a random mutation, and an individual will be born with a new characteristic (for example, with an increased brain size, changes in skeletal structure). And this can be very useful and even necessary for survival in the conditions in which this species now lives. This “special” individual can not only better adapt to the conditions, but also give birth to offspring in which this new trait will be fixed, helping to survive. Thus, after a certain number of generations, this species can completely change. If adaptations do not occur during life, and living conditions on the planet are constantly changing, at some certain point the species will become unviable and simply disappear.
Let's try to trace the process of human development on earth from beginning to end. How in the process of evolution did we become what we are now and why does the monkey you see in the zoo not turn into a human?
According to scientific classification, humans belong to the class of mammals. The very first ancestors of this class appeared on earth more than 200 million years ago. Their sizes were small (only 10 cm), but the small creatures were very mobile with button eyes. Most likely, they lived in burrows or nests, eating small insects.
And 70 million years ago, the order of primates began to stand out among this class. Then they were small rat-like individuals moving along the treetops.
30 million years ago, flat-nosed monkeys and monkeys began to actively evolve. Then their development took different paths. The first became the ancestors of modern gorillas and orangutans. Scientists consider chimpanzees to be the closest relative of humans. 98.4% of human and chimpanzee genes are identical. This fact indicates a very close relationship.
All primates, and humans, as you already understand, are also included in this group, have a lot of similar features: our upper and lower limbs have 5 fingers, at birth one or more babies are born, who are attached to their mother for a long time and not can live independently. The structure of the teeth and maxillofacial part of the head suggests the ability to chew various types of food. Humans, modern gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans have a common distant ancestor, and this is our similarity. Modern apes, like humans (especially chimpanzees), are social animals that use tools in their activities that help them obtain food (albeit primitive tools). For example, sticks broken from tree branches help them catch insects living underground. The food obtained is always distributed among the members of the entire herd.
It should be understood that all modern species of primates and humans have common ancestors. In the process of centuries-old evolution, descendants began to evolve from the progenitor in different directions, acquiring new useful qualities and characteristics, over time forming new separate species that are no longer capable of transforming into each other. In other words, today's chimpanzees and gorillas cannot evolve into humans. Man could only have appeared from anthropoid apes of past centuries, from which all existing branches of primates originated.
The human branch of development appeared in the African savannas. Our ancestors came down from the trees and began to develop grassy spaces. During the rainy season, the savannas are full of lush vegetation: leaves, grass, bushes grow everywhere. During the dry season, everything around dries up. This is such impermanence. Primates needed to adapt to conditions of both abundance and complete lack of food. In dry moments, they learned to obtain seeds and nuts, but for this they needed their upper limbs. Having freed their hands to search for food, such primates now began to walk on two limbs, and the size of their brains increased. Humanoid creatures appeared - hominids. Their appearance dates back to 9 million years ago. During excavations in Ethiopia, a female skeleton was discovered that resembles a hominid from that period. This valuable find was given the name Lucy; her height was small and was less than 130 cm. But this species of hominid, to which Lucy belonged, disappeared over time. They were replaced by more advanced creatures. Their brains were much larger, and they used stone tools rather than just wooden sticks. They were hunters and gatherers. Scientists called this type of people Homosapiens (reasonable man). Presumably, it appeared 40 thousand years ago.
Modern man moves in an upright position, uses complex technical devices in his activities, uses a whole system of sound symbols (speech) in communication, masters written symbols for transmitting information, acquires and develops skills, knowledge and abilities that he is able to transfer to children, and is not limited by his environment. , can live in conditions with different climates. Human ancestors disappeared from the face of the earth long ago.
Today's primate species have much in common, but will never be able to transform into each other. Although, scientists admit that if the human branch dies out, a new species resembling humans may appear from the existing species of monkeys. But this is just a theory.

MOSCOW, August 9 - RIA Novosti, Alfiya Enikeeva. Black-striped capuchins, primates from the family of prehensile-tailed monkeys, have been using stone tools for more than three thousand years, reminiscent of those used by people of the Olduvai culture. Chimpanzees can make tools for cracking nuts, catching insects and hunting small mammals. Scientists believe that monkeys inherited this ability from a common ancestor with humans and developed their own technology.

Skillful monkey

For almost the entire last century, people were considered the only biological species capable of not only using, but also making tools. From this trait, important physiological characteristics of humans were derived: a large brain, opposable thumb, and binocular vision.

British researcher Jane Goodall, who observed chimpanzees in the Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania in the 1960s, noticed that they pick up branches from the ground, carefully clean them of leaves and small twigs, and only then use them to catch termites. Primates used leaves and moss to make sponges capable of absorbing water. They used them to wipe down their “hunting tools.” In addition, they cracked nuts with stones.

It was precisely these stone “hammers”, more than four thousand years old, that Canadian anthropologists discovered in Côte d’Ivoire (Africa) in 2007. The stones themselves contained remnants of starch found in nuts, a favorite food of chimpanzees. Signs of wear and chips along the edges also confirmed that the stones were used for cracking nuts. There were no remains of ancient people near the tools.

According to the authors of the work, this proves that the monkeys themselves figured out how to use the stones. A second likely explanation is that chimpanzees and humans inherited this skill from a common ancestor. This means that Homo sapiens is not the only species that has figured out how to make a tool from scrap materials.

Cultural evolution of the Capuchins

Further evidence of the technological development of monkeys were stone hammers with traces of impacts, anvils and randomly broken pieces of stones discovered by British and Brazilian scientists in the Serra da Capivara National Park (Brazil). Radiocarbon dating showed that the oldest of them were made at least three thousand years ago.

Outwardly, they are similar to the tools of the Olduvai culture, which were used by ancient hominids. But the remains of our distant ancestors were not next to the artifacts.

The excavation site itself is well known to primatologists - it is here that black-striped capuchins still prefer to crack cashew nuts. Moreover, researchers have repeatedly observed how these monkeys hit stone against stone, resulting in flakes and broken cores. Capuchins use these stone chips to crack the hard shells of nuts.

© Falotico et al. / Nature Ecology & Evolution 2019Tools of ancient Capuchins found by anthropologists in Brazil

© Falotico et al. / Nature Ecology & Evolution 2019

Tools of ancient Capuchins found by anthropologists in Brazil

In total, researchers found about a hundred similar ancient axes with a total weight of more than fifty kilograms. They differ greatly from each other in the manner of manufacture and use.

If three thousand years ago monkeys made relatively light and small tools (presumably for cutting soft food), then about five hundred years ago they switched to large and heavy stones. Apparently, the food has become harder and larger. After another two hundred years, the capuchins became addicted to cashew nuts, and this immediately affected the character of the tools - they became lighter.

Initially, the Capuchins were content with roughly hewn stones, but over time they improved sharp stone chips. From generation to generation they were made more and more. According to the researchers, in this sense, the “cultural evolution” of apes is practically indistinguishable from the technological progress of our immediate ancestors.

Line UMK V.V. Pasechnik. Biology (5-9)

Biology

Why don't all monkeys turn into humans?

We know that multicellular organisms evolved from single-celled organisms, and reptiles were once amphibians. However, just as with monkeys, single-celled organisms and amphibians did not cease to exist. Not all fish were able to get out of the water and become four-legged, and not all reptiles evolved into mammals. Even if we choose a less global example, we all know very well that not all birds became cranes, not all plants became sequoias, not all mushrooms became boletuses.

Such examples can be given endlessly, but one thing is clear - each species of living beings is unique. The evolution of one creature into another occurs due to many different factors, happy (or not so happy) coincidences, a huge number of reasons. It is impossible for two different creatures to have all the factors and accidents coincide, and for them to begin to evolve in the same way. Such a transformation is as incredible as the same work by two different poets, or if identical nationalities with identical language and culture arise on two islands.

I see a goal, I go towards it

There are several common misconceptions about the phenomenon of evolution. The first mistake is the idea of ​​“purposive evolution.” Allegedly, all transformations occur for a reason, but with a specific ultimate goal. According to this idea, everything began with the simplest organisms, gradually evolving into more “advanced” creatures. However, this assumption is fundamentally incorrect. Development from simple to complex is progress, but progress in evolution does not happen as often as we would like. Only a small number of creatures manage to become more complex. On the contrary, many organisms become “simpler” during evolution, which does not in any way affect them negatively.

Most often, in the development of life on Earth, the emerging species did not become a replacement for the old one, but was added to it. That is why there are so many different species on our planet at the moment - biodiversity reigns supreme. Of course, some animals ceased to exist, but an abundance of new species replaced this loss. So, instead of huge dinosaurs, reptiles and other creatures remained, and the “newly appeared” man joined the primates, and did not replace them all.

The crown of creation

The second misconception regarding evolution: the idea that man is the final evolutionary goal. As if the very phenomenon of evolutionary progress was aimed at ensuring that man appeared at the end of his journey.

However, biologists have not found any evidence of such a theory. It would be fair to argue that the history of the development of creatures before the advent of man is similar to the fact that we - humans - were the ultimate goal. Single-celled organisms, having overcome many “tests,” once evolved into the first animals, then into the first chordates, then into the first fish, tetrapods, reptiles, beast-toothed lizards, the first mammals, and then into primates, monkeys and humans. But man became the “crown of creation” only in this chain of evolution, and other creatures had their own evolutionary chains, for example, the tiger or the elephant.

Our relative is the dolphin

It is also worth noting that if we compare pedigree lines, then the human line at different stages of its evolution converges with the pedigrees of other creatures. For example, with the most common mosquito we are related by the stages of development from single-celled organisms to primitive worm-like animals.

But we have even more in common with the dolphin - the differences begin only at the stage of development of ancient mammals. It turns out that all organisms and creatures up to ancient mammals are common to the dolphin, and then the paths of evolution diverged. In this case, on what basis do we have the right to consider our own branch of development to be the most important, and consider ourselves to be the ultimate goal? After all, a dolphin can just as easily see itself on the pedestal of evolution, and consider us an unimportant branch of progress. All species now living on planet Earth have a rich and amazing evolutionary history. And, naturally, each species is the pinnacle of its development, its evolution.

Charles Darwin - English scientist, naturalist and traveler, creator of one of the first general studies on the origins of man. He substantiated the idea that all types of living organisms evolve over time and descend from common ancestors, and considered natural selection to be the main mechanism of evolution. Later he developed the theory of sexual selection.

To each according to his needs

But how can the same dolphin be the pinnacle of evolution, if it is man who has the smartest brain? We also have a complex communication system that other creatures cannot boast of.

Indeed, it is so. But here a reasonable question arises: is our brain really needed by a dolphin or our speech by a mosquito? Each species has its own special properties, and these properties are important to them like no other. The ability to swim or run fast, the ability to camouflage, spit poison, emit a pungent odor - all these are special skills that are much more useful for their species than our ability to say a witty phrase. In addition, animals most often need the unique properties to survive - and this is the main thing in life. But you still need to get used to the human brain - learn to collect information, be able to use it, master new skills. It takes a lot of time for the evolution of the brain and the development of culture, and you need to be able to survive every day.

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Are there any benefits to having big brains?

Man does not have the largest brain. Of all living creatures, elephants and cetaceans can boast of such a solid “acquisition”. But a big brain is not at all equal to the amount of information, skills and abilities. Nature has endowed elephants and whales with large overall sizes, so the size of the brain compared to their other body parts and organs is not so prominent. Why, then, did evolution not create a big brain in the body of a small creature?

Surprisingly, a big brain brings big problems. For example, a large brain requires a large amount of calories to function properly. Consequently, all owners of such brains will need to work hard to be able to “feed” their brains. A large brain also makes childbirth difficult. At a time when medicine did not yet exist, as such, many mothers and babies died during childbirth precisely for this reason.

In addition, the surrounding nature illustrates with many examples a calm existence even in the absence of a large brain. All the more surprising is the combination of circumstances in which the choice of evolution unexpectedly fell on an increase in the brain of the monkeys that became our distant ancestors.

It was the human “smart brain” that allowed us to immerse ourselves in thinking about the origin of life on Earth in general and about who man came from in particular. It was man who first began to speculate about why other animals did not become humans, and whether it was possible that another such intelligent species would ever appear.

However, evolution did not take place over a couple of decades, so it is very difficult to notice any worthwhile changes experimentally. Since chimpanzees mature and reproduce too slowly, such observations will take not just a couple of centuries, but several thousand years. The real observations began relatively recently - several decades ago. And even if monkeys have already begun to evolve, scientists cannot yet track this fact. And it is also worth remembering that evolution requires special conditions, a combination of circumstances, and in conditions of a limited territory, the “dominance” of the planet by people, it is unclear whether the monkeys themselves need this evolutionary leap. Perhaps, after a few million years, another intelligent species similar to humans will appear. Or maybe it will be a species significantly superior to us in all respects, since by that time completely different qualities will be needed for survival. In short, time will tell.

Firstly, evolutionary theory does not use the term “transformation” when drawing family ties between humans and modern apes. Evolution is more complex than simple transformation; it is a long process in which multiple external factors are also involved. Secondly, enormous time intervals are required for their appearance, selection and consolidation in highly organized organisms. The short life of not even a single individual, but of all humanity, will not allow us to keep track of evolutionary changes. But man still manages to observe the progress of evolution, only on a microscale. There are known mutations in the simplest organisms - microbes and microbes - that manage to acquire, for example. Thirdly, man did not descend from those modern ones that exist today. Humans, along with hundreds of species of other monkeys, belong to the higher primates. They have many similarities with each other, and it is based on the fact that once there was a single ancestor. It was a miniature mammal, the size of a rat, that appeared about 70 million years ago and climbed trees. It was soon separated from it (30-40 million years ago), and then completely replaced by monkeys and flat-nosed monkeys monkey. Perhaps among them there was a common ancestor, who was more likely to be similar to chimpanzees, because it is with him that humans have the greatest coincidence of genes. During the development of the savannas by this ancestor, important changes took hold, among them: upright walking, as a result of which the hands were freed, and an enlargement of the brain. These creatures were no longer monkeys, but they were not yet humans either, so they were called hominids. Their first remains found are 9 million years old; since then, hominid species have replaced each other, displacing each other. Those who survived were those who could adapt better to the conditions, who had larger brains, who could organize hunting, and make tools. Modern people belong to the species Homo sapiens. This species arose approximately 50,000 years ago and is the only one that mastered speech. Although the genes of humans and chimpanzees coincide by more than 98%, nevertheless, this is now a parallel branch of the development of animals similar to humans. An example could be the heirs of your great-great-grandfathers’ siblings. They would be relatives to you because they once came from the same family, but distant because... They have long since crossed the line of second cousins. And if this shift occurs within four generations (that's about 170 years), then imagine what the gap between humans and chimpanzees is if approximately 30 million years have passed.

Chimpanzee

Although we are indeed closely related to modern apes, they did not evolve into humans.

The relationship between us is similar to the relationship between cousins: both brothers descended from the same great-grandfather. We and the great apes also descended from the same ancestor.

Evolution and life

We don't have to look far into the past to find evidence of evolution. Evolution is a process that is constantly happening around us. Bacteria that could previously be killed by penicillin have mutated and become resistant to this antibiotic. The color of the moths changed depending on the color of the trees on which they lived.

Interesting fact: Our closest relatives are chimpanzees. We share 98.4 percent of our genes with them.

Animal species gradually change to better adapt to their environment. New species of animals also appear, they exist for millions of years, and then disappear. Evolution needs time and luck to work successfully. Traits that help a species survive better—unusual but more efficient teeth, a larger brain—may appear in the newborn as a result of random variation. If the traits that appear in this way are truly useful and allow their carriers to better adapt and survive in conditions in which other representatives of the species cannot survive, then the new individuals will produce viable offspring and the trait will be fixed. After many years, all animals of a given species will look different.