Basic innate reflex forms of infant behavior. Child psychology. Congenital forms of the child’s psyche and behavior. Congenital forms of the baby’s psyche and behavior

2. Congenital forms of the baby’s psyche and behavior

A baby who is only 1-2 days old from birth is already able to distinguish chemical substances by taste. The sense of smell, as one of the oldest and most important sense organs, also begins to function immediately after birth. Elementary vision, movement and hearing have the same features.

In the first two months of life, the child demonstrates the ability to reflexively turn the head in response to the touch of any object to the corner of the mouth, strongly squeezes the palms when touching their surface, and makes general uncoordinated movements of the arms, legs and head. He also has the ability to visually track moving objects and turn his head in their direction. IN maternity hospitals Children in the first days of their life instinctively turn their faces towards the window from which daylight pours.

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions are similar to those observed in adults during increased attention and special interest in something.

We should also name, recognizing as innate, a group of processes that contribute to the self-preservation and development of the child’s body. They are associated with the regulation of digestion, blood circulation, breathing, body temperature, metabolic processes, etc. Undoubtedly, sucking, protective, orientation, grasping, musculoskeletal and a number of other reflexes are innate; all of them clearly appear already in the second month of a child’s life.

Readiness to function from birth is revealed not only by the basic sense organs, but also by the brain. The number of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex of a newborn is almost the same as in an adult, but these cells are still immature, and the connections between them are weak. The maturation of the child’s brain and body, their transformation into the brain and body of an adult, occurs within several years after birth and ends only with entry into school. The maturation and development of the brain is directly influenced by the many different external influences and impressions that a child receives from environment.

Studies have found that in the brain of a child, no more than a day and a half has passed since birth, it is possible to register various electrical potentials that arise in response to the effects of color stimuli on the organ of vision. By this time, the brain is already able to form conditioned reflexes.

In relation to an infant, it is important to know not only the innate forms of the psyche and behavior, but also the process of natural development of the body. The development of movements in the first months of life is of particular importance.

A baby's motor skills from birth have a rather complex organization. It includes many mechanisms designed to regulate posture. A newborn often exhibits increased motor activity of the limbs, which has a positive effect on the formation of complex complexes of coordinated movements in the future.

The development of the child's movements during the first year of life proceeds at a very rapid pace, and the progress achieved in this respect in twelve months is amazing. From a practically helpless creature with a limited set of elementary general congenital movements of the arms, legs and head, the child turns into a small person who not only easily stands on two legs, but moves relatively freely and independently in Space, capable of performing complex manipulative movements simultaneously with the movements of the legs hands freed from locomotion (the function of ensuring movement in space) and intended for exploring the surrounding world.

IN infancy Children's motor skills are quickly formed, especially complex, sensory-coordinated movements of the arms and legs. These movements subsequently play a very significant role in the development of the child’s cognitive and intellectual abilities. Thanks to the movements of the arms and legs, the child receives a significant part of the information about the world; through the movements of the arms and legs, he learns to see like a human eye. Complex manual movements are included in the primary forms of thinking and become its integral part, ensuring the improvement of human intellectual activity.

Greater impulsive activity in the child's hands is observed. Already in the first weeks of his life. This activity includes arm swinging, grasping, and hand movements. At 3-4 months, the child begins to reach for objects with his hand and sits with support. At 5 months, he already grasps stationary objects with his hand. "At 6 months the child sits on a chair with support and can grab moving, swinging objects. At 7 months he sits without support, and at 8 he sits down without assistance. At about 9 months the baby stands with support, crawls on his stomach, and at 10 sits with support and crawls, leaning on his hands and knees. At 11 months the child is already standing without support, at 12 he walks holding the hand of an adult, and at 13 he walks independently. This is the amazing progress of motor activity over the course of one year with the moment the child is born.

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for humans. It is the first to begin to actively develop at the very beginning of life. Already at one month old baby tracking eye movements can be recorded. At first, such movements are carried out mainly in the horizontal plane, then vertical tracking appears, and finally, by the age of two months, elementary curvilinear, for example circular, eye movements are noted. Visual concentration, i.e. the ability to fix the gaze on an object, appears in the second month of life. By the end of it, the child can independently move his gaze from one object to another.

Infants in the first two months of life most During their waking hours, they are engaged in examining surrounding objects, especially when they are fed and in a calm state. However, vision appears to be the least developed sense at birth (meaning the level of development that vision can reach in an adult). Although newborns are able to follow moving objects with their eyes, their vision is relatively weak until 2-4 months of age.

A fairly good level of development of eye movements can be noted in a child by about three months of age. The process of formation and development of these movements is not completely predetermined genetically; its speed and quality depend on the creation of an appropriate external stimulating environment. Children's eye movements develop faster and become more perfect when there are bright, attractive objects in their field of vision, as well as people making a variety of movements that the child can observe.

From about the second month of life, the child has the ability to distinguish the simplest colors, and in the third or fourth months - the shapes of objects. At two weeks, the baby has probably already formed a single image of the mother’s face and voice. Experiments conducted by scientists have shown that a baby shows obvious anxiety if a mother appears before his eyes and begins to speak in a “not her own” voice, or when a stranger suddenly “speaks” in the mother’s voice (such an experimental situation with the help of technical means artificially created in a number of experiments with infants).

In the second month of life, the baby reacts to people in a special way, highlighting and distinguishing them from surrounding objects. His reactions to a person are specific and almost always strongly emotionally charged. At the age of about 2-3 months, the baby also reacts to a mother’s smile with a smile and a general increase in movements. This is called the revitalization complex. It would be wrong to associate the appearance of a revival complex in a child with the visual perception of well-known faces. Many children who are blind from birth also begin to smile at about two to three months of age, after hearing only their mother's voice. It has been established that intense emotional communication between an adult and a child promotes, while rare and soulless communication hinders the development of the revitalization complex and can lead to a general delay in the child’s psychological development.

A smile on a child’s face does not appear and is maintained by itself. Its appearance and preservation is facilitated by affectionate address mother with a child or an adult replacing her. To do this, the adult’s facial expression must be kind, joyful, and his voice pleasant and emotional.

The first elements of the revitalization complex appear in the second month of life. These are freezing, concentration, smiling, humming, and all of them initially arise as reactions to an adult addressing a child. In the third month of life, these elements are combined into a system and appear simultaneously. Each of them acts as a specific reaction to the corresponding influences of an adult and serves the purpose of intensifying the child’s communication with an adult. At the final stage of its development, the revitalization complex is demonstrated by the child whenever the child has a need to communicate with an adult.

By the age of three to four months, children clearly show by their behavior that they prefer to see, hear and communicate only with familiar people, as a rule, family members. At about eight months of age, the baby shows a state of visible anxiety when a face comes into his field of vision. stranger or when he himself finds himself in an unfamiliar environment, even if at that moment in time his own mother is next to him. Fear of strangers and unfamiliar surroundings progresses quite quickly, starting from eight months of age until the end of the first year of life. Along with it, the child’s desire to constantly be close to a familiar person, most often his mother, grows, and not allow long separation with him. This tendency to develop fear of strangers and fear of unfamiliar surroundings reaches its highest level at approximately 14-18 months of life, and then gradually decreases. Apparently, it manifests the instinct of self-preservation during that particularly dangerous period of life for a child, when his movements are uncontrollable and his defensive reactions are weak.

Infants one year old or close to this age have a distinct cognitive interest to the surrounding world and developed cognitive activity. They are able to focus their attention on the details of the images under consideration, highlighting contours, contrasts, simple shapes, moving from horizontal to vertical elements of the picture. Infants show an increased interest in flowers; they have a very pronounced indicative and exploratory reaction to everything new and unusual. Babies become animated when they perceive phenomena different from those they have encountered before.

By the end of the first year of life, the first signs of thinking in a child occur in the form of sensorimotor intelligence. Children of this age notice, assimilate and use the elementary properties and relationships of objects in their practical actions. The further progress of their thinking is directly related to the beginning of speech development.

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VORONEZH STATE
PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Essay
in developmental psychology
“Innate forms of psyche and behavior
babies"

Completed by a second year student
Faculty of Psychology and Education

Voronezh - 2005
Content

Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - 2
1. Unconditioned reflexes and their importance for the development of a child - - 3
2. Features of the development of sensory organs - - - - - - 5
3. Development of the emotional sphere. Revitalization complex - - - 6
Conclusion - - - - - - - - - - 8
References - - - - - - - - - 10

Introduction
A newborn is initially helpless. As soon as he is born, he must adapt to living conditions that differ sharply from existence in the mother’s womb. The life of a newborn depends on how his body can adapt to changing environmental conditions. Having been born and having recovered from the shocks associated with birth, the child begins to live in given conditions and develop in accordance with his innate potential and the conditions created.
Infancy is a period when, from a sedentary lifestyle and a sleepy state, the child quickly develops into an active, cheerful child. Very quickly he learns to establish eye contact with an adult, opens his hands visually, learns to grab an object, and then manipulate it. He explores, examines the world around him in the immediate space; feels the object with his hands, pulls it into his mouth and gets acquainted with the object in such an infant way; he listens and looks for the source of the sound; he constantly manipulates everything that comes to hand. He enters into emotional relationships with his mother and other close adults. He begins to feel anxious at the sight of a stranger. In fact, from an asocial being, the baby quickly becomes a child, capable of reacting to the people around him with a smile, crying, joy, fear - in human ways. At the same time, he begins to distinguish between individual, often repeated situations and manifest himself in a certain way; he begins to distinguish between words denoting objects and significant people.
Infancy is a period when a child develops physically, mentally and socially extremely quickly, going through a colossal path in a short time from a helpless newborn with a small set of innate reactions to an active baby, capable of looking, listening, acting, solving some clearly perceived situations, crying out for help, attract attention, rejoice at the appearance of loved ones.

1. Unconditioned reflexes and their importance for the development of a child
Birth is a great shock to a child's body. From a vegetative, plant existence in a relatively constant environment (the mother’s body), he suddenly moves into completely new conditions of the air environment with an endless number of frequently changing stimuli, into a world where he has to become a rational person.
A child’s life in new conditions is ensured by innate mechanisms. He is born with a certain readiness nervous system adapt the body to external conditions. So, immediately after birth, reflexes are activated, ensuring the functioning of the main body systems (breathing, blood circulation).
In the first days, you can also note the following. Severe skin irritation (an injection, for example) causes a protective withdrawal, the flashing of an object in front of the face causes squinting, and a sharp increase in the brightness of the light causes constriction of the pupil, etc. These reactions are protective reflexes.
In addition to protective ones, reactions aimed at contact with an irritant can be found in newborns. These are orientation reflexes. Observations have established that already in the period from the first to the third day, a strong light source causes the head to turn: in the children's room of the maternity hospital on a sunny day, the heads of most newborns, like sunflowers, are turned towards the light.
It has also been proven that already in the first days, newborns tend to follow a slowly moving light source. Approximate food reflexes are also easily evoked. Touching the corners of the lips or the cheeks causes a searching reaction in a hungry child: he turns his head towards the stimulus and opens his mouth.
In addition to those listed, the child exhibits several more innate reactions: sucking reflex - the child immediately begins to suck on an object placed in his mouth; clinging reflex - touching the palm causes a grasping reaction; repulsion reflex (crawling) - when touching the soles of the feet and some other reflexes.
Thus, the child is armed with a certain number of unconditioned reflexes, which appear in the very first days after birth. Behind last years Scientists have proven that some reflex reactions appear even before birth. So, after eighteen weeks the fetus develops a sucking reflex.
Most of the innate reactions are necessary for the child to live. They help him adapt to new conditions of existence. Thanks to these reflexes, a new type of breathing and feeding becomes possible for the newborn. If before birth the fetus develops at the expense of the mother's body (through the walls of the blood vessels of the placenta - the child's place - nutrients and oxygen enter the blood of the fetus from the mother's blood), then after birth the child's body switches to pulmonary respiration and so-called oral nutrition (through the mouth and gastrointestinal tract). -intestinal tract). This adaptation occurs reflexively. After the lungs are filled with air, an entire system of muscles is involved in rhythmic breathing movements. Breathing is easy and free. Feeding occurs through the sucking reflex. The innate actions included in the sucking reflex are, at first, poorly coordinated with each other: when sucking, the child chokes, suffocates, and quickly runs out of strength. All his activity is aimed at sucking for the sake of saturation. The establishment of reflex automaticity of thermoregulation is also very important: the child’s body adapts better and better to temperature changes.
Newbornhood is the only period in a person’s life when one can observe in its pure form the manifestation of innate, instinctive forms of behavior aimed at satisfying organic needs (for oxygen, food, warmth). These organic needs, however, cannot form the basis of mental development - they only ensure the survival of the child.
In a child, unlike young animals, the existing unconditioned reflexes do not provide the emergence of human forms of behavior, while the complex set of unconditioned reflexes of young animals allows the development of an adult with active protective, hunting, maternal and other reactions necessary for normal existence.
A child is much less “armed” with innate forms of behavior than a baby animal. The child still has to develop all human forms of behavior.

2. Features of the development of sensory organs
The main feature of a newborn is the unlimited possibilities of learning new experiences and acquiring forms of behavior characteristic of humans. If organic needs are sufficiently satisfied, they soon lose their leading importance, and in conditions correct mode and upbringing, new needs are formed (for receiving impressions, for movement, for communicating with adults); on their basis mental development is carried out.
The need to receive impressions is connected in its origins with orienting reflexes and develops depending on the readiness of the child’s senses to receive these impressions. Although a newborn's visual and auditory systems become operational from the first day, their work is extremely imperfect. Visual reactions are caused only by light that is nearby, auditory reactions are caused only by sharp sounds. During the first weeks and months of life, vision and hearing improve rapidly. The child begins to follow moving objects with his eyes, and then fixes his gaze on stationary objects. He begins to respond to soft sounds, in particular to the voice of an adult. In response to visual and auditory stimuli, there is still a short-term delay in impulsive movements of the arms, legs and head; the cessation of crying indicates visual and auditory concentration.
An important feature of a newborn is that the development of vision and hearing occurs faster than the development of bodily movements. This feature distinguishes a child from young animals, whose movements are primarily improved.
The development of the functioning of the visual and auditory apparatus, the improvement of reactions to external stimuli occur on the basis of the maturation of the child’s nervous system and, first of all, his brain. The weight of a newborn's brain is 1/4 the weight of an adult's brain. The number of nerve cells in it is the same as in an adult, but these cells are not sufficiently developed. Nevertheless, already in the neonatal period (and even in children born prematurely) the formation of conditioned reflexes turns out to be quite possible.
This fact serves as proof that the higher parts of the brain - the cerebral cortex - are involved in establishing connections between the child and the outside world. From the first days of life, the weight of the brain begins to rapidly increase, and nerve fibers grow and become covered with protective myelin sheaths. At the same time, those areas that are associated with receiving external impressions are formed especially quickly: in two weeks, the area occupied by the visual fields in the cerebral cortex increases by one and a half times.
A necessary condition for the normal maturation of the brain during the newborn period is the exercise of the senses (analyzers), the receipt of impulses into the brain, received with the help of various signals from the outside world. If a child finds himself in conditions of sensory isolation (lack of a sufficient number of external impressions), his development slows down sharply. On the contrary, if the child receives enough impressions, then the rapid development of orienting reflexes occurs (which is expressed in the appearance of visual and auditory concentration), creating the basis for the subsequent mastery of movements and the formation of mental processes and qualities.
The adult becomes the source of visual and auditory impressions necessary for the normal development of the child’s nervous system and sensory organs, and, more importantly, the organizer of such impressions. The adult brings objects to the child's face, tilts his face, talks to the child, thereby activating his orienting reactions.

3. Development of the emotional sphere. Revitalization Complex
A newborn begins his life with a cry, which in the first days is of an unconditional reflex nature. The first cry is the result of a spasm of the glottis. The spasm accompanies the first respiratory reflexes. Some scientists believe that the first cry is also the first manifestation of a negative emotion: spasms cause a feeling of constraint. In this case, it is truly impossible to distinguish between a muscular reaction and an emotional attitude - the newborn does not yet have any life experience. However, it can be argued that already in the first days of life, the child responds with a cry to unpleasant sensations associated with the need for food, sleep, warmth: the basis for the cry is hunger, wet diapers, etc.
With normal upbringing, the deafening “wow” of a newborn turns into a less violent expression of negative emotion - crying. Crying becomes a natural expression of all kinds of suffering, whether we are talking about physical pain or (of course, much later) about mental grief.
A smile, which expresses positive emotions, appears later than a cry. The first fairly definite manifestations of positive emotion in the form of a smile could be observed at the end of the first - beginning of the second month of life, and the smile arose either with visual concentration on an object, or in response to kind words addressed to the child and a smile from an adult. From this we can conclude that for a positive emotion to arise, it is not enough to satisfy organic needs alone. It only removes negative emotions and creates conditions under which the child can experience a joyful experience. But such an experience itself is caused by receiving impressions associated with an adult.
Gradually, the child develops a special emotional-motor reaction directed towards an adult, which is called a revitalization complex. The animation complex consists in the fact that the child focuses his gaze on the face of the person bending over him, smiles at him, animatedly moves his arms and legs, and makes quiet sounds. This is an expression of the emerging need to communicate with an adult - the child’s first social need. The emergence of the revitalization complex marks the boundary between the neonatal period and infancy.

Conclusion
The newborn period marks the beginning of infancy and covers
etc.................

INTRODUCTION

1. Chronological framework

4. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The problem of communication between young children and adults is very relevant and topical. Research by outstanding Russian psychologists has proven that communication is the most important factor in a child’s mental development. They began studying this problem in the 50s. As you know, communication is the first human activity that arose at the dawn of the formation of human society.

Research by leading Russian psychologists has proven that the need for communication in children is the basis for the further development of the entire psyche and personality already in the early stages of ontogenesis. It is in the process of communicating with other people that the child learns human experience. Without communication, it is impossible to establish mental contact between people.

Without human communication, the development of a child’s personality is impossible, as evidenced by children - Mowgli. A lack of communication between an adult and a child, according to experts, leads to various disorders: in some cases to the occurrence of mental retardation, in others to pedagogical neglect, and in more severe cases- even to the death of children in the early stages of ontogenesis (in infancy and early age). Also, the lack of communication with children leads to the following results: as numerous facts testify, being deprived of communication with their own kind, the human individual, even if he, as an organism, is completely preserved, nevertheless remains a biological being in his mental development.

The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first type of social activity that arises in ontogenesis and thanks to which the child receives the necessary for his individual development information.

Communication is one of the most important factors in the overall mental development of a child. Only in contact with adults is it possible for children to assimilate the socio-historical experience of humanity.

1. Chronological framework

The first stage is the newborn stage (up to 2 months). This stage is characterized, first of all, by the fact that the child is born with relatively highly developed sense organs, organs of movement and a nervous system, the formation of which occurs during intrauterine period. The newborn has visual and auditory sensations, sensations of body position in space, olfactory, skin and taste sensations, as well as many elementary reflexes. The nervous system of a newborn, including the cerebral cortex, is generally already fully anatomically formed. But the development of the microscopic structure of the cortex has not yet been completed; in particular, the myelination of nerve fibers of the motor and sensory zones of the cortex is just beginning.

The lifestyle of a newborn differs little from its lifestyle during the prenatal period: at rest, the child retains the same embryonic position; sleep takes 4/5 of the total time; the child’s external activity is largely focused on satisfying his food needs; There are no manual or moving movements at all. Nevertheless, the newborn stage is the first stage at which behavior in the form of simple acts begins to form, and most importantly, the sphere of sensations is especially intensively formed. There is an early differentiation of taste and olfactory sensations that are associated with the child’s nutrition. Reach high development skin sensations from the cheeks, lips, mouth. Visual perception of shapes is initially absent; the child reacts only to large or bright moving objects. At the same time, the development of indicative reactions occurs, such as calming down to sound, and especially to the mother’s whisper.

At three to four weeks of age, the baby begins to prepare for the transition to the next, higher stage of development. At this time, a peculiar complex reaction appears, expressed in the general revival of the child in the presence of a person. This reaction is called the “revival reaction” among researchers. The development of this reaction begins with the fact that in response to the approach talking man the child begins to smile and has a general positive orientation, which is not yet differentiated. That is, the child begins to show the first signs of objective perception.

Thus, the main characteristics of this stage are: myelination of nerve fibers; formation of simple behavioral acts and indicative reactions; the occurrence of a “revival” reaction.

Early infancy (2 to 6 months). At this stage of mental development, the child begins to operate with objects and his perception is formed. It all starts with attempts to grab or feel an object with simultaneous visual fixation on this object, which determines the formation of visual-tactile connections that underlie object perception. The child operates especially actively with objects (with simultaneous visual fixation) at the age of five to six months, so we can assume that at this age there is a rapid development of perception processes. Moreover, by this time the child can already sit independently, which provides him with further development of movements when reaching for objects. At the same time, the child begins to recognize people and things. Visual concentration and visual anticipation develop.

Thus, the main feature of this stage is the development of actions with objects and processes of object perception.

Late infancy (from 6 to 12-14 months). In the second half of the first year of life, the child masters new actions, which is associated with a change in his attitude towards the world around him. At the seventh month of life, the child’s manual object movements are already well developed. He can take an object, bring it to his mouth, and push it away. In this case, the child can sit up independently and roll over from his stomach to his back; he begins to crawl, rises, trying to cling to surrounding objects. Thus, strengthening the musculoskeletal system leads to the development of the child’s range of motion, which in turn is a prerequisite for increasing the flow of information from the environment. All this leads to increased independence of the child. His relationships with adults are increasingly taking the form of joint activity, in which the adult most often prepares the child’s action, and the child performs the action himself. With the help of such interaction, it is already possible to establish communication with the child through objects. For example, an adult moves an object towards a child - the child takes it. The child moves the object away from him - the adult removes it.

Consequently, the child’s activity in a given period of development is no longer controlled by the perception of individual objects or their totality, but by the complex relationship between the child’s own objective action and the action of the adult. On this basis, the child begins to develop his first understanding of objects. During the established “subject” contact, the child begins to develop speech. He increasingly begins to respond with action to the word of an adult. Somewhat later, the child begins to make gestures addressed to an adult, while the child’s actions are increasingly accompanied by sounds denoting something objective.

Another important difference of this age is that in the process of objective communication with an adult, a child becomes able to impulsively imitate adults. As a result, the child begins to imitate the adult more consciously, which indicates that the child has the opportunity to master socially developed methods of action. This, in turn, ensures the appearance at the end of this stage of specifically human motor operations with objects. During these operations thumb is contrasted with the rest, which is characteristic only of humans. Gradually, the child begins to grasp and hold objects with his hand in an increasingly sophisticated way. By the end of the period, the child masters independent walking.

Thus, the main characteristics of this period are: a change in the relationship with the outside world based on objective communication; comprehension of objects and the appearance of the first signs of speech; the emergence of non-impulsive imitation by adults and the development of specifically human motor operations with objects; mastering independent walking.

2. Congenital forms of the baby’s psyche and behavior

In the first two months of life, the child demonstrates the ability to reflexively turn the head in response to the touch of any object to the corner of the mouth, strongly squeezes the palms when touching their surface, and makes general uncoordinated movements of the arms, legs and head. He also has the ability to visually track moving objects and turn his head in their direction. In maternity hospitals, children in the first days of their lives instinctively turn their faces towards the window from which daylight pours.

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions are similar to those observed in adults with increased attention and special interest in something.

During infancy, children's motor skills develop rapidly, especially complex, sensory-coordinated movements of the arms and legs. These movements subsequently play a very significant role in the development of the child’s cognitive and intellectual abilities. Thanks to the movements of the arms and legs, the child receives a significant part of the information about the world; through the movements of the arms and legs, he learns to see like a human eye. Complex manual movements are included in the primary forms of thinking and become its integral part, ensuring the improvement of human intellectual activity.

Greater impulsive activity in the child's hands is observed. Already in the first weeks of his life. This activity includes arm swinging, grasping, and hand movements. At 3-4 months, the child begins to reach for objects with his hand and sits with support. At 5 months, he already grasps stationary objects with his hand. "At 6 months the child sits on a chair with support and can grab moving, swinging objects. At 7 months he sits without support, and at 8 he sits down without assistance. At about 9 months the baby stands with support, crawls on his stomach, and at 10 sits with support and crawls on hands and knees. At 11 months the child is already standing without support, at 12 months he walks holding an adult’s hand, and at 13 he walks independently. This is an amazing progress in motor activity within one year from the moment of birth child.

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for humans. It is the first to begin to actively develop at the very beginning of life. Already in a one-month-old baby, tracking eye movements can be recorded. At first, such movements are carried out mainly in the horizontal plane, then vertical tracking appears, and finally, by the age of two months, elementary curvilinear, for example circular, eye movements are noted. Visual concentration, i.e. the ability to fix the gaze on an object, appears in the second month of life. By the end of it, the child can independently move his gaze from one object to another.

Babies in the first two months of life spend most of their waking hours looking at surrounding objects, especially when they are fed and in a calm state. However, vision appears to be the least developed sense at birth (meaning the level of development that vision can reach in an adult). Although newborns are able to follow moving objects with their eyes, their vision is relatively weak until 2-4 months of age.

In the second month of life, the baby reacts to people in a special way, highlighting and distinguishing them from surrounding objects. His reactions to a person are specific and almost always strongly emotionally charged. At the age of about 2-3 months, the baby also reacts to the mother’s smile with a smile and a general increase in movements. This is called the revitalization complex. It would be wrong to “associate the emergence of a revival complex in a child with the visual perception of well-known faces. Many children who are blind from birth also begin to smile at about two to three months of age, having heard only the voice of their mother. It has been established that intense emotional communication between an adult and a child contributes, and rare and soulless things hinder the development of the revitalization complex and can lead to a general delay in the child’s psychological development.

A smile on a child’s face does not appear and is maintained by itself. Its appearance and preservation is facilitated by the affectionate treatment of the mother with the child or an adult replacing her. To do this, the adult’s facial expression must be kind, joyful, and his voice pleasant and emotional.

By the age of three to four months, children clearly show by their behavior that they prefer to see, hear and communicate only with familiar people, as a rule, family members. At the age of about eight months, the child shows a state of visible anxiety when the face of an unfamiliar person appears in his field of vision or when he himself finds himself in an unfamiliar environment, even if his own mother is next to him at that moment in time. Fear of strangers and unfamiliar surroundings progresses quite quickly, starting from eight months of age until the end of the first year of life. Along with it, the child’s desire to constantly be close to a familiar person, most often his mother, and not allow a long separation from him grows. This tendency to develop fear of strangers and fear of unfamiliar surroundings reaches its highest level at approximately 14-18 months of life, and then gradually decreases. Apparently, it manifests the instinct of self-preservation during that particularly dangerous period of life for a child, when his movements are uncontrollable and his defensive reactions are weak.

Infants one year old or close to this age are characterized by a clearly expressed cognitive interest in the world around them and developed cognitive activity. They are able to focus their attention on the details of the images under consideration, highlighting contours, contrasts, simple shapes, moving from horizontal to vertical elements of the picture. Infants show an increased interest in flowers; they have a very pronounced indicative and exploratory reaction to everything new and unusual. Babies become animated when they perceive phenomena different from those they have encountered before.

3. Features of communication between a baby and adults

The first object that a child identifies from the surrounding reality is a human face. Perhaps this happens because this is the irritant that is most often with the child at the most important moments of satisfying his organic needs. The baby's eyes, which for the first time begin to converge on the mother's face, and the smile on the mother's face, serve as indicators of the selection of the object.

From the reaction of concentration on the mother's face, an important new formation of the newborn period arises - the revitalization complex. The revitalization complex is an emotionally positive reaction that is accompanied by movements and sounds. Before this, the child’s movements were chaotic and uncoordinated. The complex develops coordination of movements. The revival complex is the first act of behavior, the act of distinguishing an adult. This is also the first act of communication. The revival complex is not just a reaction, it is an attempt to influence an adult.

The revitalization complex is the main neoplasm of the critical period. It marks the end of the newborn and the beginning of a new stage of development - the stage of infancy. Therefore, the appearance of the revival complex represents a psychological criterion for the end of the neonatal crisis. The physiological criterion for the end of the newborn period is the appearance of visual and auditory concentration, the possibility of forming conditioned reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli. The medical criterion for the end of the neonatal period is that the child has regained the original weight with which he was born, which indicates that the physiological systems of life are functioning normally.

The social situation of the inextricable unity of a child and an adult contains a contradiction: the child needs the adult as much as possible and, at the same time, does not have specific means of influencing him. This contradiction is resolved throughout the entire period of infancy. The resolution of this contradiction leads to the destruction of the social development situation that gave rise to it.

The social situation of the child’s common life with his mother leads to the emergence of a new type of activity - direct emotional communication between the child and mother. As studies by D. B. Elkonin and M. I. Lisina have shown, a specific feature of this type of activity is that the subject of this activity is another person. But if the subject of activity is another person, then this activity is communication. What is important is not what people do with each other, emphasized D. B. Elkonin, but that another person becomes the subject of activity. Communication of this type in infancy is very pronounced. On the part of the adult, the child becomes the subject of activity. On the part of the child, one can observe the emergence of the first forms of influence on an adult. Thus, very soon the child’s vocal reactions acquire the character of an emotionally active call, whining turns into a behavioral act aimed at an adult. This is not yet speech in the proper sense of the word, as long as it is just emotional and expressive reactions.

Communication during this period should be emotionally positive. Thus, the child creates an emotionally positive tone, which serves as a sign of physical and mental health.

Is communication the leading type of activity in infancy? Research has shown that a lack of communication during this period has a negative impact. Thus, after the Second World War, the concept of @hospitalism@ entered into psychology, with the help of which the mental development of children who lost their parents and ended up in hospitals or orphanages was described.

Most researchers (R. Spitz, J. Bowlby) noted that the separation of a child from his mother in the first years of life causes significant disturbances in the child’s mental development, and this leaves an indelible imprint on his entire life. R. Spitz described numerous symptoms of behavioral disorders in children and mental retardation physical development children raised in institutions. Despite the fact that the care, food, and hygienic conditions in these institutions were good, the mortality rate was very high. Many studies indicate that pre-speech and speech development suffers during hospitalization; separation from the mother affects the development of cognitive functions and the emotional development of the child. A. Jersild, describing the emotional development of children, noted that a child’s ability to love others is closely related to how much love he himself received and in what form it was expressed. Anna Freud, tracing the development of children who were orphaned during the war and raised in orphanages, discovered that in adolescence they were not capable of selective attitudes towards adults and peers. Many teenagers tried to establish such a close child-mother relationship with one of the adults that did not correspond to their age. Without this, the transition to adulthood became impossible.

Observing the development of children in modern closed children's institutions, the Hungarian pediatrician E. Pikler discovered new symptoms of hospitalism. She wrote that the children in these institutions at first glance make a good impression. They are obedient, usually busy playing, walk in pairs on the street, do not run away, do not linger, and can be easily undressed or dressed. They do not touch what cannot be touched; they do not interfere with the organizing work of an adult with their demands. Although such a picture gives a feeling of satisfaction, such behavior, according to E. Pikler, seems extremely dangerous: these children completely lack volitional behavior and initiative, they only willingly reproduce and carry out tasks according to instructions. These children are characterized not only by a lack of volitional expression, but also by an impersonal attitude towards adults.

The most important moments of interaction between a child and an adult take place during the process of caring for the child. This is feeding, bathing, dressing, walking, etc. The peculiarity of contacts between an adult and a child is how the adult informs the child about his actions. At the same time, he can patiently and slowly wait for the child to show activity. So, for example, during feeding, the teacher first raises the spoon with food to the child’s eye level so that the child looks at this spoon. The child’s mouth reflexively opens, and the teacher calmly feeds the child. This example clearly shows the observance of the “golden rule of education”: the child must first be given the opportunity to orient himself, and then he himself begins to act. This rule applies to any, even the simplest, human actions. Unfortunately, E. Pikler believes, adults usually decide for themselves what a child should know, when and how he should act, and, while helping the child, teach him without giving him the opportunity to actively navigate the conditions of his own action.

As J. Bruner's later studies showed, a child already develops a number of communication methods in the pre-speech period. According to J. Bruner, the baby initially uses a “demanding method” of communication. These are innate reactions of discomfort, cries with the nature of a demand, during which there are no pauses suggesting a response. Following them, a “begging method” appears - in this case, the screams are less urgent, and pauses appear while waiting for an answer. Starting from 5-6 months, the child’s vocalizations are included in a new structure - an “exchange mode” of communication appears for the first time. During this period, the child uses his vocalizations primarily to draw the mother's attention to the object and to his intention to participate in communication. The “exchange” method gradually turns into the fourth - “interacting” method. In joint activity with an adult, the separation of the positions of the speaker and the listener in the structure of communication is observed/

CONCLUSION

Without precise knowledge of what a child is born with, without a deep understanding of the processes of his natural development according to biogenetic laws, it is difficult to recreate a complete and quite complex picture of the child’s development, and to build training and education on its basis.

People surrounding the baby help him in everything from birth. They provide physical care for the child’s body, teach, educate him, contribute to the acquisition of human psychological and behavioral traits, and adaptation to the conditions of social existence. Support for the child from parents and adults begins from birth and continues for at least a decade and a half until the child becomes an adult and is able to lead an independent, self-sufficient lifestyle. But a modern adult, in order to remain human and develop as a person, needs constant support from other people, communication and interaction with them. Without this, he would quickly degrade as a person.

At the same time, already at birth, a baby has a considerable supply of almost ready-to-use, complex sensory and motor abilities - instincts, allowing him to adapt to the world and quickly progress in his development. From birth, for example, a newborn has many complex movements that develop mainly according to a genetically specified program during the maturation of the body, including reflex movements that arise immediately and without special training from the first hours of life under the influence of appropriate internal and external stimuli coded as key in programs. At birth, the baby has sensations of all modalities, elementary forms of perception, memory, thanks to which his further cognitive and intellectual development.

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Innate mental properties. Identification of the basic innate qualities of the psyche is possible quite early. There are stable properties of mental activity, which subsequently form the basis of temperament. The following properties of temperament are distinguished:

1) the speed of occurrence of mental processes and their stability (for example, speed of perception, duration of concentration);

2) mental tempo and rhythm;

3) the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, the activity of volitional actions);

4) the focus of mental activity on any objects, regardless of their content (for example, a constant desire for contacts with new people, for new impressions).

Subsequently, the temperament is supplemented with appropriate emotional coloring, finds a whole range of mental expressions, and is reflected in the so-called “facial passport.”

Psychologists studying the higher nervous activity of young children, as a rule, identify four main variants of the child’s psyche. - Lively, friendly children usually have a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system.

Calm, slow, patient children are also characterized by a strong, balanced nervous system, but of an inert type.

A group of children who are restless, wild, irritable and uncontrollable. This is an example of a strong unbalanced nervous system.

Weak nervous system in fearful, withdrawn, inhibited children.

It is important to remember that during the repetition process psychological states and reactions (positive or negative) stable personality qualities are formed. It is therefore necessary to constantly study and analyze the results of pedagogical influence on the actions and characteristics of your child’s behavior. Developed emotions are the basis for the formation of moral qualities of an individual. The lives of children are determined to a decisive extent by feelings, and even more so the younger they are. They are characterized by rapid changes of emotions, their redundancy and impulsiveness. Instantly occurring strong emotional outbursts - affects - are typical at an early age. Repeatedly, they lead to depletion of the cerebral cortex and disrupt the resistance of the nervous system to external influences.

Some feelings create a cheerful mood and increase productivity, while others cause difficult experiences, sometimes negative reactions, and reduce productivity. In children with unstable emotions, under the influence of even a slight, but for them excessive, external influence, impulsiveness in the manifestation of feelings, an unpredictable reaction to the behavior of adults, and sometimes hysteria are possible. Babies express their pleasure not only with a smile, but with wild joy; failure is accompanied by crying, screaming, and erratic movements of the arms and legs.

Depending on the initial type of nervous system and the age of the child, the influence of stressors is not the same. Of course, it is impossible to completely eliminate such influences in life. It should be remembered that what smaller child, the more categorically you need to try to exclude emotionally stressful situations. Another important factor in reducing the adverse effects on the psyche is the education of feelings. Its meaning is that the appearance of a negative emotion should become a signal for a positive emotion. Having chosen any stress stimulus, it is advisable to show the child how to react to it, and try to make this method of response the subject of frequent and consistent training.

But a modern adult, in order to remain human and develop as a person, needs constant support from other people, communication and interaction with them. Without this, he would quickly degrade as a person.

At the same time, already at birth, a baby has a considerable supply of almost ready-to-use, complex sensory and motor abilities - instincts that allow him to adapt to the world and quickly progress in his development. From birth, for example, a newborn has many complex movements that develop mainly according to a genetically specified program during the maturation of the body, including reflex movements that arise immediately and without special training from the first hours of life under the influence of appropriate internal and external stimuli coded as key in the development programs of these movements. At birth, the baby has sensations of all elementary forms of perception and memory, thanks to which its further cognitive and intellectual development becomes possible. They represent genetically specified structures or blocks of sensory systems, from which more complex cognitive structures are built directly or with minor intravital modification. Such basic elements of perception can include, for example, the mechanisms of visual, auditory and muscular concentration, tracking of objects, their comparison, localization in space, storage in memory, processing traces of their influences.

In the first two months of life, the child demonstrates the ability to reflexively turn the head in response to the touch of any object to the corner of the mouth, strongly squeezes the palms when touching their surface, and makes general uncoordinated movements of the arms, legs and head. He also has the ability to visually track moving objects and turn his head in their direction. In maternity hospitals, children in the first days of their lives instinctively turn their faces towards the window from which daylight pours.

The baby is able to distinguish substances by taste. He definitely prefers sweet liquids over others and is even able to detect the degree of sweetness. The newborn senses odors, reacts to them by turning his head, changes in the frequency of heartbeat and breathing. These motor and physiological reactions are similar to those observed in adults with increased attention and special interest in something.

One should also name a group of congenital processes that contribute to the self-preservation and development of the child’s body. They are associated with the regulation of digestion, blood circulation, breathing, body temperature, metabolic processes, etc. Undoubtedly, sucking, protective, orientation, grasping, musculoskeletal and a number of other reflexes are innate; all of them clearly appear already in the second month of a child’s life.

Readiness to function from birth is revealed not only by the basic sense organs, but also by the brain.

In relation to an infant, it is important to know not only the innate forms of the psyche and behavior, but also the process of natural development of the body. The development of movements is of particular importance in the first months of life.

The number of nerve cells in the cerebral cortex of a newborn is almost the same as in an adult, but these cells are still immature, and the connections between them are weak. The maturation of the child’s brain and body, their transformation into the brain and body of an adult, occurs within several years after birth and ends only with entry into school. The maturation and development of the brain is directly influenced by the many different external influences and impressions that a child receives from the environment.